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Oni foje nomas la amerikan bizonon '''amerika bubalo''', kvankam tiu [[Nearktiso|nearktisa]] specio estas nur malproksime parenca al la [[akvobubalo]] kaj [[afrika bubalo]].
Oni foje nomas la amerikan bizonon '''amerika bubalo''', kvankam tiu [[Nearktiso|nearktisa]] specio estas nur malproksime parenca al la [[akvobubalo]] kaj [[afrika bubalo]].

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== Referencoj ==
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{{Referencoj}}


== Vidu ankaŭ ==
== Vidu ankaŭ ==
* [[Nordamerikaj Grandaj Ebenaĵoj]]
* [[Nordamerikaj Grandaj Ebenaĵoj]]
* [[Buffalo Bill]]
* [[Buffalo Bill]]
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== Physiology ==
Bison have a shaggy, dark brown winter coat, and a lighter weight, lighter brown summer coat. Bison can reach up to 2 meters (6 1/2&nbsp;[[foot|ft]]) tall, 3&nbsp;meters (10&nbsp;ft) long and weigh 450 to 900 kilograms (900 to 2,000&nbsp;[[avoirdupois|lbs]]). The biggest specimens can weigh over 1,000 kilograms (2,200 lb). The heads and forequarters are massive, and both sexes have short, curved horns, which they use in fighting for status within the herd and for defense. Bison mate in August and September; a single reddish-brown calf is born the following spring, and it nurses for a year. Bison are mature at three years of age, and have a life expectancy of 18 to 22 years in the wild and 35 to 40 years in captivity.

One very rare condition results in the [[white buffalo]], where the calf turns entirely white. It is not to be confused with [[albino]], since white bison still possess [[pigment]] in the skin, hair, and eyes. White bison are considered sacred by many [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]].

Due to its size and the protection afforded by living in a herd, the bison has few enemies besides humans. Grizzly bears and packs of wolves may attempt to attack a young calf or subadult but only in the dead of winter, when the herd cannot expend the energy to protect stragglers, can a wolf pack take down an adult bison. The only threat, other than hunting by human, that leads to the depletion of wild bisons are interbreeding with domestic bovines. In fact, only a small number of bison herds found in North America today are pure breed bisons.

[[Dosiero:Bison1-Custer State Park-SD.jpg|eta|dekstra|Juvenile bison in late May in Custer State Park, South Dakota]]

== Reproductive habits and sexual behavior ==
Their mating habits are [[polygynous]]: dominant bulls maintain a small harem of females for mating. Individual bulls "tend" females until allowed to mate, following them around and chasing away rival males.

[[Homosexuality|Homosexual behavior]]— including courtship and mounting between bulls—is common among bison. The [[Mandan]] nation Okipa festival concludes with a ceremonial enactment of this behavior, to "ensure the return of the buffalo in the coming season." Inter-sexual bison also occur. The [[Lakota]] refer to them as ''pte winkte'' —''pte'' meaning bison and ''winkte'' designating [[two-spirit]]— thereby drawing an explicit parallel between [[transgender]] in animals and people. ([[Bruce Bagemihl]], ''Whole Earth'', 2000) ''See [[Homosexuality in animals]].''

Juveniles are lighter in color than mature bison for the first three months of their life. The mating season is in middle to late summer, as late as September in northern ranges. Gestation is 285 days in length, and so the calves are typically born in the spring. <ref>The Gale Group, Inc. Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia artice on American bison. [http://www.answers.com/topic/american-bison Accessed Aug 13th 2006]</ref>

== Native hunting ==
The American Bison is a relative newcomer to North America, having originated in Eurasia and migrated over the [[Bering Strait]]. About 10,000 years ago it replaced the Long-horned Bison (''[[Bison priscus]]''), a previous immigrant that was much larger. It is thought that the Long-horned Bison may have gone extinct because of a changing ecosystem and hunting pressure following the development of the [[Clovis point]] and related technology, and improved hunting skills. During this same period, other [[megafauna]] vanished and were replaced to some degree by immigrant Eurasian animals that were better adapted to predatory humans. The American bison, technically a dwarf form, was one of these animals. Another was the [[brown bear]], which replaced the [[short-faced bear]].
[[Dosiero:Bison Bull in Nebraska.jpg|dekstra|250px|eta|A Bison on a [[Nebraska]] wildlife refuge.]]
Bison were a [[keystone species]], whose grazing pressure was a force that shaped the ecology of the [[Great Plains]] as strongly as periodic [[Wildfire|prairie fire]]s and which were central to the lifestyle of [[Great Plains culture|Native Americans of the Great Plains]]. But there is now some controversy over their interaction. "[[Hernando De Soto (explorer)|Hernando De Soto]]'s expedition staggered through the Southeast for four years in the early sixteenth century and saw hordes of people but apparently did not see a single bison," Charles C. Mann writes in ''1491: New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus''. Mann discusses the evidence that Native Americans not only created (by selective use of fire) the large grasslands that provided the bison's ideal habitat but also kept the bison population regulated. In this theory, it was only when the Indian population was decimated by wave after wave of epidemic (from diseases of Europeans) after the 16th century that the bison herds propagated wildly. In such a view, the seas of bison herds that stretched to the horizon were a symptom of an ecology out of balance, only rendered possible by decades of heavier-than-average rainfall. Bison were the most numerous single species of large wild mammal on Earth.

What is not disputed is that before the introduction of [[horse]]s, bison were herded into large chutes made of rocks and willow branches and then stampeded over cliffs. These [[Buffalo jump|bison jump]]s are found in several places in the U.S. and Canada, such as [[Head-Smashed-In Buffalo Jump]]. Large groups of people would herd the bison for several miles, forcing them into a [[stampede]] that would ultimately drive many animals over a cliff. The large quantities of meat obtained in this way provided the hunters with surplus which they could trade with other cultures.
A similar method of hunting was to drive the bison into natural corrals, such as [[Ruby site]].

To get full use out of the bison, the Native Americans had a specific method of butchery, first identified at the Olsen-Chubbock archeological site in Colorado. The method involves skinning down the back in order to get at the tender meat just beneath the surface, the area known as the "hatched area." After the removal of the hatched area, the front legs are cut off as well as the shoulder blades. Doing so exposes the hump meat (in the [[Wood Bison]]), as well as the meat of the ribs and the Bison's inner organs. After everything was exposed, the spine was then severed and the pelvis and hind legs removed. Finally, the neck and head were removed as one. This allowed for the tough meat to be dried and made into [[pemmican]].

Later when Plains Indians obtained horses, it was found that a good horseman could easily lance or shoot enough bison to keep his tribe and family fed, as long as a herd was nearby. The bison provided meat, leather, sinew for bows, grease, dried dung for fires, and even the hooves could be boiled for glue. When times were bad, bison were consumed down to the last bit of [[marrow]].

== Buffalo trails ==
The first thoroughfares of North America, save for the time-obliterated paths of mastodon or musk-ox and the routes of the [[Mound Builder]]s, were the traces made by bison and [[deer]] in seasonal migration and between feeding grounds and [[salt lick]]s. Many of these routes, hammered by countless hoofs instinctively following watersheds and the crests of ridges in avoidance of lower places' summer muck and winter snowdrifts, were followed by the Indians as courses to [[hunting ground]]s and as [[warriors' paths]]; they were invaluable to explorers and were adopted by [[pioneers]]. Bison traces were characteristically north and south; there were, however, several key east-west trails which were used later as railways. Some of these include the [[Cumberland Gap]]; along the [[New York]] watershed; from the [[Potomac River]] through the [[Allegheny]] divide to the [[Ohio River]] headwaters; and through the [[Blue Ridge Mountains]] to upper [[Kentucky]] In Senator [[Thomas Benton]]'s phrase saluting these sagacious pathmakers, the buffalo blazed the way for the railroads to the Pacific.

Source: [[James Truslow Adams]], 1940. ''Dictionary of American History'' (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons)

== "Buffalo Hunt" ==
[[Dosiero:Bison skull pile, ca1870.png|eta|dekstra|300px|Pile of bison skulls, 1870s]]
Bison were hunted almost to [[extinction]] in the [[19th century]] and were reduced to a few hundred head by the mid-1880s, from which all the present day's managed herds are descended. One major cause was that hunters were paid by large [[railroad]] concerns to destroy entire herds, for several reasons:
*The herds formed the basis of the economies of local Plains tribes of Native Americans; without bison, the tribes would leave.
*Herds of these large animals on tracks could damage locomotives when the trains failed to stop in time.
*Herds often took shelter in the artificial cuts formed by the grade of the track winding though hills and mountains in harsh winter conditions. As a result, the herds could delay a train for days.

Bison skins were used for industrial machine belts, clothing such as robes, and rugs. There was a huge export trade to Europe of bison hides. Old West bison hunting was very often a big commercial enterprise, involving organized teams of one or two professional hunters, backed by a team of skinners, gun cleaners, [[cartridge (firearms)|cartridge]] reloaders, cooks, wranglers, blacksmiths, security guards, teamsters, and numerous horses and wagons. Men were even employed to recover and re-cast lead bullets taken from the carcasses. Many of these professional hunters such as [[Buffalo Bill Cody]] killed over a hundred animals at a single stand and many thousands in their career. One professional hunter killed over 20,000 by his own count. A good hide could bring $3.00 in [[Dodge City]], and a very good one (the heavy winter coat) could sell for $50.00 in an era when a laborer would be lucky to make a dollar a day.

The [[hunter]] would customarily locate the herd in the early morning, and station himself about 100 meters from it, shooting the animals broadside through the lungs. Head shots were not preferred as the soft lead bullets would often flatten and fail to penetrate the skull, especially if mud was matted on the head of the animal. The bison would drop until either the herd sensed danger and stampeded or perhaps a wounded animal attacked another, causing the herd to disperse. If done properly a large number of bison would be felled at one time. Following up were the skinners, who would drive a spike through the nose of each dead animal with a [[sledgehammer]], hook up a horse team, and pull the hide from the carcass. The hides were dressed, prepared, and stacked on the wagons by other members of the organization.

For a decade from 1873 on there were several hundred, perhaps over a thousand, such commercial hide hunting outfits harvesting bison at any one time, vastly exceeding the take by American Indians or individual meat hunters. The commercial take arguably was anywhere from 2000 to 100,000 animals per day depending on the season, though there are no statistics available. It was said that the [[Big .50s]] were fired so much that hunters needed at least two rifles to let the barrels cool off, and they were sometimes quenched in the winter snow. [[Dodge City]] saw railroad cars sent East filled with stacked hides.

As the great herds began to wane, proposals to protect the bison were discussed. Cody, among others, spoke in favor of protecting the bison because he saw that the pressure on the [[species]] was too great. But these were discouraged since it was recognized that the Plains Indians, often at war with the United States, depended on bison for their way of life. General [[Phillip Sheridan]] spoke to the [[Texas]] Legislature against a proposal to outlaw commercial bison hunting for that reason, and [[President Grant]] also "[[pocket veto]]ed" a similar Federal bill to protect the dwindling bison herds. By 1884, the American Bison was close to extinction.

The destruction of the bison was resisted by many of the Plains Indians but not with success. The Indians did not participate in [[commercial hunting]] of the bison. {{fact}}

== Comeback ==
[[Dosiero:American Bison with friends.jpg|dekstra|250px|eta|Group of Bison at a watering hole.]]
As few as 750 bison existed in 1890. The Famous Buffalo Herd of [[James "Scotty" Philip]] in South Dakota was the beginning of the reintroduction of Bison to North America. In 1899, he purchased a small herd from Dug Carlin, Pete Dupree's brother-in-law, whose son Fred had roped 5 calves in the Last Big Buffalo Hunt on the Grand River in 1881 and taken them back home to the ranch on the Cheyenne River. At the Time of Purchase there where approximately 74 Pure buffalo and it was believed to be one of the largest known herds left in North America. Scotty's goal was to preserve the animal from extinction. At the time of his death in 1911 at 53, Scotty had grown the herd to an estimated 1,000 to 1,200 head of Bison.

A variety of privately-owned herds have also been established, starting from this population. The current American Bison population has been growing rapidly and is estimated at 350,000, but this is compared to an estimated 60–100 million in the mid-19th century. Current herds, however, are all partly crossbred with cattle (see "[[beefalo]]"); today there are only four genetically unmixed herds and only one that is also free of [[brucellosis]]: it roams [[Wind Cave National Park]]. A founder population from the Wind Cave herd was recently established in Montana by the [[World Wildlife Fund]].

The only continuously wild bison herd in the United States resides within Yellowstone National Park. Numbering between 3000 and 3500, this herd is descended from a remnant population of 23 individual mountain bison that survived the mass slaughter of the 1800's by hiding out in the Pelican Valley of Yellowstone Park. In 1902, a captive herd of 21 plains bison were introduced to the Lamar Valley and managed as livestock until the 1960s, when a policy of natural regulation was adopted by the park.

The end of the ranching era and the onset of the natural regulation era set into motion a chain of events that have led to the bison of [[Yellowstone Park]] migrating to lower elevations outside the park in search of winter forage. The presence of wild bison in [[Montana]] is perceived as a threat to many cattle ranchers, who fear that the small percentage of bison that carry [[brucellosis]] will infect livestock and cause cows to abort their first calves. However, there has never been a documented case of brucellosis being transmitted to cattle from wild bison. The management controversy that began in the early 1980s continues to this day, with advocacy groups arguing that the Yellowstone herd should be protected as a distinct population segment under the Endangered Species Act.

=== Bison hunting today ===
Hunting of wild bison is legal in some states and provinces where public herds require culling to maintain a target population. In [[Alberta]], where one of only two continuously wild herds of bison exist in North America at [[Wood Buffalo National Park]], bison are hunted to protect disease free herds of public (reintroduced) and private herds of bison.
In [[Montana]] a public hunt was re-established in 2005, with 50 permits being issued. The Montana Fish, Wildlife and Parks Commission increased the number of tags to 140 for the 2006/2007 season. Advocacy groups claim that it is premature to re-establish the hunt, given the bison's lack of habitat and wildlife status in Montana.

== Bison today ==
[[Dosiero:Bull Buffalo - Project Gutenberg eText 17748.jpg|eta|Bull Bison, illustrated in ''The Extermination of the American Bison'']]
Bison are now raised for meat and hides. Over 250,000 of the 350,000 remaining bison are being raised for human consumption. Bison meat is lower in fat and cholesterol than beef which has led to the development of [[beefalo]], a fertile cross-breed of bison and domestic cattle. In 2005, about 35,000 bison were processed for meat in the U.S., with the National Bison Association and [[USDA]] providing a "Certified American Buffalo" program with birth-to-consumer tracking of bison via [[RFID]] ear tags.

Recent genetic studies of privately-owned herds of bison show that many of them include animals with genes from domestic cattle; there are as few as 12,000 to 15,000 pure bison in the world. The numbers are uncertain because the tests so far used [[mitochondrial DNA]] analysis, and thus would miss cattle genes inherited in the male line; most of the hybrids look exactly like purebred bison.

[[Dosiero:United States 2005 bison nickel, reverse.jpg|150px|maldekstra|Westward Journey Nickel #3, Reverse]]

The American Bison was depicted on the reverse side of the U.S. "[[buffalo nickel]]" from 1913 to 1938. In 2005, the [[United States Mint]] coined a nickel with a new depiction of the bison as part of its "Westward Journey" series; the [[Kansas]] quarter has a depiction of the bison on its reverse as part of its "50 [[State Quarters|State Quarter]]" series. The Kansas [[State Quarter]] only has the bison and does not feature any writing.

The bison is a symbol of [[Manitoba]], the [[Royal Canadian Mounted Police]], [[Bucknell University]], the [[University of Colorado at Boulder|University of Colorado]], [[Lipscomb University]], [[Marshall University]], the [[Independence Party of Minnesota]], and [[North Dakota State University]]. It is also commonly used as a symbol of the city of [[Buffalo, New York]], although the city was not named for the animal. The bison is also the state mammal of [[Wyoming]].

[[Custer State Park]] in [[South Dakota]] is home to 1,500 bison, one of the largest publicly-held herds in the world.

A proposal known as [[Buffalo Commons]] has been suggested by a handful of academics and policymakers to restore large parts of the drier portion of the [[Great Plains]] to native [[prairie]] grazed by bison. Proponents argue that current agricultural use of the shortgrass prairie is not [[sustainability|sustainable]], pointing to periodic disasters such as the [[Dust Bowl]] and continuing significant population loss over the last 60 years. However, this plan is opposed by most who live in the sparsely-populated area, though it might benefit participating states economically.

== Dangers ==
Bison are among the most dangerous animals encountered by visitors to the various [[National Parks]], especially Yellowstone National Park. Although they are not carnivorous, they will attack humans if provoked. They appear slow because of their lethargic movements, but they can easily outrun humans—they have been observed running as fast as 45 miles per hour (73 km/h). Between 1978 and 1992, over four times as many people in Yellowstone National Park were killed or injured by bison as by [[bears]] (12 by bears, 56 by bison). Bison also have the unexpected ability, given the animal's size and body structure, to leap over a standard barbed-wire fence.

== Native American names for bison ==
Though commonly called buffalo or bison in [[English language|English]], Native American languages also have many names for the animal. They include:

*Tatanka ([[Lakota language|Lakota]])
*Yąnąsh ([[choctaw language|Choctaw]])
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== Referencoj ==
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{{Referencoj}}


== Eksteraj ligiloj ==
== Eksteraj ligiloj ==
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{{Projektoj}}{{Portalo|Zoologio}}
{{Commons|Bison bison}}
* Fagan, Brian. ''Ancient North America''. 2005. Thames and Hudson
* Fagan, Brian. ''Ancient North America''. 2005. Thames and Hudson
* Koller, Larry. ''Fireside Book of Guns''. 1959 Simon and Schuster
* Koller, Larry. ''Fireside Book of Guns''. 1959 Simon and Schuster
Linio 142: Linio 53:
* [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/17748 The Extermination of the American Bison], by William T. Hornaday from [[Project Gutenberg]]
* [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/17748 The Extermination of the American Bison], by William T. Hornaday from [[Project Gutenberg]]
* [http://thisside.net/wiki Wild Bison Reference Project] -Kunlabora bibliografio por la Konservado, Prizorgado, kaj Protektado de Sovaĝaj Bizonoj
* [http://thisside.net/wiki Wild Bison Reference Project] -Kunlabora bibliografio por la Konservado, Prizorgado, kaj Protektado de Sovaĝaj Bizonoj

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{{Portalo|Zoologio}}


[[Kategorio:Bizono]]
[[Kategorio:Bizono]]

Nuna versio ekde 12:36, 5 nov. 2023

Kiel legi la taksonomionVikipedio:Kiel legi la taksonomion
Kiel legi la taksonomion
Amerika bizono
Alternativa bildo Historia desegnaĵo Sonregistraĵo de bizona bleko
Biologia klasado
Regno: Animaloj Animalia
Filumo: Ĥorduloj Chordata
Klaso: Mamuloj Mammalia
Ordo: Parhufuloj Artiodactyla
Familio: Bovedoj Bovidae
Subfamilio: Bovenoj Bovinae
Genro: Bizono Bison
Specio: B. bison
Bison bison
(Linnaeus, 1758)
Konserva statuso

Konserva statuso: Dependa je protektado (LR/cd)[1]
Subspecioj

B. b. athabasacae
B. b. bison

Aliaj Vikimediaj projektoj
Sistematiko en Vikispecioj
Komunejo pri Amerika bizono
v • d • r

La Amerika bizono (Bison bison) estas boveda mamulo, kiu estas la plej granda terbesto de Nordameriko kaj unu el la plej grandaj bovospecioj de la mondo. Pli granda ol la plej granda subspecio de la amerika bizono, la arbara bizono, estas nur la giganta Azia gaŭro kaj la sovaĝa akvobubalo, ambaŭ loĝantoj ĉefe en Barato. La amerika bizono vivis sur la Nordamerikaj Grandaj Ebenaĵoj de Usono kaj Kanado en grandegaj gregoj; ilia vivregiono etendiĝis en la Granda Slavia Lago en la nordo de Kanado ĝis Meksiko en la sudo kaj de orienta Oregono preskaŭ ĝis la Atlantika Oceano.

Tiaj gregoj estis ĉasitaj je la fino de la 19-a jarcento ĝis preskaŭ minaci la formorton de la specio (restis nur 325 en 1884). Ĝi estas la unua usona kazo de mamula specio sukcese reenkondukita en la sovaĝejon (oni supozas, ke estas ĉirkaŭ 500 000 en 2015, kaj almenaŭ kelkaj en ĉiu usona ŝtato). En majo 2016, la bizono iĝis la oficiala mamulo de Usono post la leĝigo de la National Bison Legacy Act[2]).

Ĝiaj du subspecioj estas la Preria bizono (Bison bison bison) kaj la Arbara bizono (Bison bison athabascae); el la du, la arbara bizono estas pli granda, kaj ĝia ĝibo estas pli kvadrateca dum la ĝibo de la preria bizono estas pli rondeca.

Oni foje nomas la amerikan bizonon amerika bubalo, kvankam tiu nearktisa specio estas nur malproksime parenca al la akvobubalo kaj afrika bubalo.

Referencoj[redakti | redakti fonton]

  1. ↑ Bison Specialist Group (1996). Bison bison. Internacia Ruĝa Listo de Endanĝeritaj Specioj, eldono de 2006. IUCN 2006. Elŝutita 11 May 2006.
  2. ↑ Bison set to become U.S. national mammal 2016-05-03. (angle)

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