Kotono: Malsamoj inter versioj

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Plej malnova skribita mencio pri '''kotono''' estas el [[Hindio]]. Kotono kultivatis en Hindio ekde pli ol 3000 jaroj kaj priparolitas en la [[Rigvedo]] skribita proksimume en jaro [[-1500]]. De antikveco, kaj dum jarcentoj, ĝis la angla [[Kolonio|koloniado]], Hindio estis ĉefa produktanto kaj eĉ eksportisto de kotonaĵoj. En antikvaj tempoj [[Romianoj]] importis per alta kosto la hindiajn [[muslino]]jn, kiujn ili nomis ''ventis textiles'' t. e. teksitaj ventoj. Modernhistorie kotonaj ŝtofoj ornamitaj per koloraj pentraĵoj presitaj el Hindio ekkonatis en [[Eŭropo]] nur en la 17-a jarcento kaj tiam nomitis "hindiaĵoj".
Plej malnova skribita mencio pri '''kotono''' estas el [[Hindio]]. Kotono kultivatis en Hindio ekde pli ol 3000 jaroj kaj priparolitas en la [[Rigvedo]] skribita proksimume en jaro [[-1500]]. De antikveco, kaj dum jarcentoj, ĝis la angla [[Kolonio|koloniado]], Hindio estis ĉefa produktanto kaj eĉ eksportisto de kotonaĵoj. En antikvaj tempoj [[Romianoj]] importis per alta kosto la hindiajn [[muslino]]jn, kiujn ili nomis ''ventis textiles'' t. e. teksitaj ventoj. Modernhistorie kotonaj ŝtofoj ornamitaj per koloraj pentraĵoj presitaj el Hindio ekkonatis en [[Eŭropo]] nur en la 17-a jarcento kaj tiam nomitis "hindiaĵoj".


==History==
[[File:Mandeville cotton.jpg|thumb|Kotonujoj imagitaj kaj desegnitaj de [[John Mandeville]] en la 14a jarcento.]]
[[File:Mandeville cotton.jpg|thumb|Kotonujoj imagitaj kaj desegnitaj de [[John Mandeville]] en la 14a jarcento.]]
Kotono estis uzata en la [[Malnova Mondo]] almenaŭ antaŭ 7,000 jaroj (5a jarmilo a.K.). Pruvaro de kotonuzado troviĝis en la loko de [[Mehrgarh]], kie fruaj kotonfadenoj esits konservitaj en kupraj bidoj.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1006/jasc.2001.0779| title = First Evidence of Cotton at Neolithic Mehrgarh, Pakistan: Analysis of Mineralized Fibres from a Copper Bead| journal = Journal of Archaeological Science| volume = 29| issue = 12| pages = 1393–1401| year = 2002| last1 = Moulherat | first1 = C. | last2 = Tengberg | first2 = M. | last3 = Haquet | first3 = J. R. M. F. | last4 = Mille | first4 = B. ̂T. }}</ref> Kotonkultivado iĝis pli disvastigata dum la [[Indusa Civilizo]], kiu kovris partojn de la teritorioj kie nun estas la modernaj orienta Pakistano kaj nortdokcidenta Barato.<ref>Stein, Burton (1998). ''A History of India''. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 0-631-20546-2, p. 47</ref> La Indusa kotonindustrio estis bone disvolvigita kaj kelkaj metodoj tiam uzitaj en kotonspinado kaj fabrikado estis plue uzataj ĝis la industriigo de Barato.<ref>Wisseman & Williams, p. 127</ref> Inter 2000 kaj 1000 a.K. kotono disvastiĝis tra multo de Hindio.<ref>Fuller, D.Q. (2008). [http://www.ucl.ac.uk/archaeology/people/staff/fuller/usercontent_profile/TextilesbeyondIndus.pdf "The spread of textile production and textile crops in India beyond the Harappan zone: an aspect of the emergence of craft specialization and systematic trade"], pp. 1–26 in Osada, T., Uesugi, A. (eld.) ''Linguistics, Archaeology and the Human Past''. Indus Project Occasional Paper 3 series. Kyoto: Indus Project, Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. ISBN 978-4-902325-16-4</ref> Por ekzemplo, oni trovis ĉe la loko de Hallus en [[Karnatako]] datita el ĉirkaŭ 1000 a.K.<ref name=ce/> Kotonfabriko malkovrita en kavo ĉe [[Tehuacán|Tehuacán (Meksiko)]] estis datita el ĉirkaŭ 5800 a.K., kvanakm estas malfacile scii certe pro la fibra malkomponiĝo.<ref>{{cite book|last=Roche|first=Julian|title=The International Cotton Trade|year=1994|publisher=Woodhead Publishing Ltd.|location=Cambridge, England|isbn=1-85573-104-5|pages=4–5|url=https://books.google.com/?id=SeQCH4-Hc5kC&pg=PA4}}</ref> Aliaj fontoj datis la aldomigon de kotono en Meksiko al proksimume 5000 al 3000 a.K.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Huckell|first=Lisa W.|title=Plant Remains from the Pinaleño Cotton Cache, Arizona|journal=Kiva, the Journal of Southwest Anthropology and History|volume=59|issue=2|year=1993|jstor=30246122|pages=147–203}}</ref>
Kotono estis uzata en la [[Malnova Mondo]] almenaŭ antaŭ 7,000 jaroj (5a jarmilo a.K.). Pruvaro de kotonuzado troviĝis en la loko de [[Mehrgarh]], kie fruaj kotonfadenoj esits konservitaj en kupraj bidoj.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1006/jasc.2001.0779| title = First Evidence of Cotton at Neolithic Mehrgarh, Pakistan: Analysis of Mineralized Fibres from a Copper Bead| journal = Journal of Archaeological Science| volume = 29| issue = 12| pages = 1393–1401| year = 2002| last1 = Moulherat | first1 = C. | last2 = Tengberg | first2 = M. | last3 = Haquet | first3 = J. R. M. F. | last4 = Mille | first4 = B. ̂T. }}</ref> Kotonkultivado iĝis pli disvastigata dum la [[Indusa Civilizo]], kiu kovris partojn de la teritorioj kie nun estas la modernaj orienta Pakistano kaj nortdokcidenta Barato.<ref>Stein, Burton (1998). ''A History of India''. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 0-631-20546-2, p. 47</ref> La Indusa kotonindustrio estis bone disvolvigita kaj kelkaj metodoj tiam uzitaj en kotonspinado kaj fabrikado estis plue uzataj ĝis la industriigo de Barato.<ref>Wisseman & Williams, p. 127</ref> Inter 2000 kaj 1000 a.K. kotono disvastiĝis tra multo de Hindio.<ref>Fuller, D.Q. (2008). [http://www.ucl.ac.uk/archaeology/people/staff/fuller/usercontent_profile/TextilesbeyondIndus.pdf "The spread of textile production and textile crops in India beyond the Harappan zone: an aspect of the emergence of craft specialization and systematic trade"], pp. 1–26 in Osada, T., Uesugi, A. (eld.) ''Linguistics, Archaeology and the Human Past''. Indus Project Occasional Paper 3 series. Kyoto: Indus Project, Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. ISBN 978-4-902325-16-4</ref> Por ekzemplo, oni trovis ĉe la loko de Hallus en [[Karnatako]] datita el ĉirkaŭ 1000 a.K.<ref name=ce/> Kotonfabriko malkovrita en kavo ĉe [[Tehuacán|Tehuacán (Meksiko)]] estis datita el ĉirkaŭ 5800 a.K., kvanakm estas malfacile scii certe pro la fibra malkomponiĝo.<ref>{{cite book|last=Roche|first=Julian|title=The International Cotton Trade|year=1994|publisher=Woodhead Publishing Ltd.|location=Cambridge, England|isbn=1-85573-104-5|pages=4–5|url=https://books.google.com/?id=SeQCH4-Hc5kC&pg=PA4}}</ref> Aliaj fontoj datis la aldomigon de kotono en Meksiko al proksimume 5000 al 3000 a.K.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Huckell|first=Lisa W.|title=Plant Remains from the Pinaleño Cotton Cache, Arizona|journal=Kiva, the Journal of Southwest Anthropology and History|volume=59|issue=2|year=1993|jstor=30246122|pages=147–203}}</ref>
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In Iran ([[Persia]]), the history of cotton dates back to the [[Achaemenid]] era (5th century BC); however, there are few sources about the planting of cotton in pre-Islamic Iran. The planting of cotton was common in [[Merv]], [[Ray, Iran|Ray]] and [[Fārs Province|Pars]] of Iran. In [[Persian poetry|Persian poets]]' poems, especially [[Ferdowsi]]'s [[Shahname]], there are references to cotton ("panbe" in [[Persian language|Persian]]). [[Marco Polo]] (13th century) refers to the major products of Persia, including cotton. [[John Chardin]], a French traveler of the 17th century who visited the [[Safavid Persia]], spoke approvingly of the vast cotton farms of Persia.<ref>[http://www.encyclopaediaislamica.com/madkhal2.php?sid=2820 Encyclopaedia Islamica Foundation. بنیاد دائره المعارف اسلامی ], Retrieved on 28 February 2009.</ref>
In Iran ([[Persia]]), the history of cotton dates back to the [[Achaemenid]] era (5th century BC); however, there are few sources about the planting of cotton in pre-Islamic Iran. The planting of cotton was common in [[Merv]], [[Ray, Iran|Ray]] and [[Fārs Province|Pars]] of Iran. In [[Persian poetry|Persian poets]]' poems, especially [[Ferdowsi]]'s [[Shahname]], there are references to cotton ("panbe" in [[Persian language|Persian]]). [[Marco Polo]] (13th century) refers to the major products of Persia, including cotton. [[John Chardin]], a French traveler of the 17th century who visited the [[Safavid Persia]], spoke approvingly of the vast cotton farms of Persia.<ref>[http://www.encyclopaediaislamica.com/madkhal2.php?sid=2820 Encyclopaedia Islamica Foundation. بنیاد دائره المعارف اسلامی ], Retrieved on 28 February 2009.</ref>
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During the [[Han dynasty]], cotton was grown by non-Chinese peoples in the southern Chinese province of [[Yunnan]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=H5VDA90eDUoC&pg=PA410|title=Textiles of Southeast Asia: tradition, trade and transformation|author=Maxwell, Robyn J. |year=2003|publisher=Tuttle Publishing|edition=revised|isbn=0-7946-0104-9|page=410}}</ref>
During the [[Han dynasty]], cotton was grown by non-Chinese peoples in the southern Chinese province of [[Yunnan]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=H5VDA90eDUoC&pg=PA410|title=Textiles of Southeast Asia: tradition, trade and transformation|author=Maxwell, Robyn J. |year=2003|publisher=Tuttle Publishing|edition=revised|isbn=0-7946-0104-9|page=410}}</ref>
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In [[Peru]], cultivation of the indigenous cotton species ''[[Gossypium barbadense]]'' was the backbone of the development of coastal cultures such as the [[Norte Chico civilization|Norte Chico]], [[Moche (culture)|Moche]], and [[Nazca culture|Nazca]]. Cotton was grown upriver, made into nets, and traded with fishing villages along the coast for large supplies of fish. The Spanish who came to Mexico and Peru in the early 16th century found the people growing cotton and wearing clothing made of it.
In [[Peru]], cultivation of the indigenous cotton species ''[[Gossypium barbadense]]'' was the backbone of the development of coastal cultures such as the [[Norte Chico civilization|Norte Chico]], [[Moche (culture)|Moche]], and [[Nazca culture|Nazca]]. Cotton was grown upriver, made into nets, and traded with fishing villages along the coast for large supplies of fish. The Spanish who came to Mexico and Peru in the early 16th century found the people growing cotton and wearing clothing made of it.
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During the late medieval period, cotton became known as an imported fiber in northern Europe, without any knowledge of how it was derived, other than that it was a plant. Because [[Herodotus]] had written in his ''[[Histories (Herodotus)|Histories]]'', Book III, 106, that in India trees grew in the wild producing wool, it was assumed that the plant was a tree, rather than a shrub. This aspect is retained in the name for cotton in several Germanic languages, such as German ''[[wikt:Baumwolle|Baumwolle]]'', which translates as "tree wool" (''Baum'' means "tree"; ''Wolle'' means "wool"). Noting its similarities to wool, people in the region could only imagine that cotton must be produced by plant-borne sheep. [[John Mandeville]], writing in 1350, stated as fact the now-preposterous belief: "There grew there [India] a wonderful tree which bore tiny lambs on the endes of its branches. These branches were so pliable that they bent down to allow the lambs to feed when they are hungrie {{sic}}." (See [[Vegetable Lamb of Tartary]].) By the end of the 16th century, cotton was cultivated throughout the warmer regions in Asia and the Americas.
During the late medieval period, cotton became known as an imported fiber in northern Europe, without any knowledge of how it was derived, other than that it was a plant. Because [[Herodotus]] had written in his ''[[Histories (Herodotus)|Histories]]'', Book III, 106, that in India trees grew in the wild producing wool, it was assumed that the plant was a tree, rather than a shrub. This aspect is retained in the name for cotton in several Germanic languages, such as German ''[[wikt:Baumwolle|Baumwolle]]'', which translates as "tree wool" (''Baum'' means "tree"; ''Wolle'' means "wool"). Noting its similarities to wool, people in the region could only imagine that cotton must be produced by plant-borne sheep. [[John Mandeville]], writing in 1350, stated as fact the now-preposterous belief: "There grew there [India] a wonderful tree which bore tiny lambs on the endes of its branches. These branches were so pliable that they bent down to allow the lambs to feed when they are hungrie {{sic}}." (See [[Vegetable Lamb of Tartary]].) By the end of the 16th century, cotton was cultivated throughout the warmer regions in Asia and the Americas.
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[[File:Vegetable lamb (Lee, 1887).jpg|thumb|left|The [[Vegetable Lamb of Tartary]]]]
[[File:Vegetable lamb (Lee, 1887).jpg|thumb|left|The [[Vegetable Lamb of Tartary]]]]
India's cotton-processing sector gradually declined during British expansion in India and the establishment of [[British Raj|colonial rule]] during the late 18th and early 19th centuries. This was largely due to aggressive colonialist mercantile policies of the [[British East India Company]], which made cotton processing and manufacturing workshops in India uncompetitive. Indian markets were increasingly forced to supply only raw cotton and were forced, by British-imposed law, to purchase manufactured textiles from Britain.{{Citation needed|date=September 2013}}
India's cotton-processing sector gradually declined during British expansion in India and the establishment of [[British Raj|colonial rule]] during the late 18th and early 19th centuries. This was largely due to aggressive colonialist mercantile policies of the [[British East India Company]], which made cotton processing and manufacturing workshops in India uncompetitive. Indian markets were increasingly forced to supply only raw cotton and were forced, by British-imposed law, to purchase manufactured textiles from Britain.


===Industrial Revolution in Britain===
===Industrial Revolution in Britain===
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The advent of the [[Industrial Revolution]] in Britain provided a great boost to cotton manufacture, as textiles emerged as Britain's leading export. In 1738, [[Lewis Paul]] and [[John Wyatt (inventor)|John Wyatt]], of [[Birmingham]], England, patented the roller spinning machine, as well as the flyer-and-bobbin system for drawing cotton to a more even thickness using two sets of rollers that traveled at different speeds. Later, the invention of the [[James Hargreaves]]' [[spinning jenny]] in 1764, [[Richard Arkwright]]'s [[spinning frame]] in 1769 and [[Samuel Crompton]]'s [[spinning mule]] in 1775 enabled British spinners to produce cotton yarn at much higher rates. From the late 18th century on, the British city of [[Manchester]] acquired the nickname ''"[[Cottonopolis]]"'' due to the cotton industry's omnipresence within the city, and Manchester's role as the heart of the global cotton trade.
The advent of the [[Industrial Revolution]] in Britain provided a great boost to cotton manufacture, as textiles emerged as Britain's leading export. In 1738, [[Lewis Paul]] and [[John Wyatt (inventor)|John Wyatt]], of [[Birmingham]], England, patented the roller spinning machine, as well as the flyer-and-bobbin system for drawing cotton to a more even thickness using two sets of rollers that traveled at different speeds. Later, the invention of the [[James Hargreaves]]' [[spinning jenny]] in 1764, [[Richard Arkwright]]'s [[spinning frame]] in 1769 and [[Samuel Crompton]]'s [[spinning mule]] in 1775 enabled British spinners to produce cotton yarn at much higher rates. From the late 18th century on, the British city of [[Manchester]] acquired the nickname ''"[[Cottonopolis]]"'' due to the cotton industry's omnipresence within the city, and Manchester's role as the heart of the global cotton trade.
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Production capacity in Britain and the United States was improved by the invention of the [[cotton gin]] by the American [[Eli Whitney]] in 1793. Before the development of cotton gins, the cotton fibers had to be pulled from the seeds tediously by hand. By the late 1700s a number of crude ginning machines had been developed. However, to produce a bale of cotton required over 600 hours of human labor,<ref name=r1>{{Cite journal | last1 = Hughs | first1 = S. E. | last2 =Valco | first2 = T. D. | first3=J. R. | last3 = Williford | year = 2008 | title = 100 Years of Cotton Production, Harvesting, and Ginning Systems | journal = Transactions of the ASABE | volume =51 | issue = 4 | pages = 1187–98 | publisher = | jstor = | doi =10.13031/2013.25234 | url = http://naldc.nal.usda.gov/catalog/23069 | format = | accessdate = }}</ref> making large-scale production uneconomical in the United States, even with the use of humans as slave labor. The gin that Whitney manufactured (the Holmes design) reduced the hours down to just a dozen or so per bale. Although Whitney patented his own design for a cotton gin, he manufactured a prior design from [[Henry Odgen Holmes]], for which Holmes filed a patent in 1796.<ref name=r1/> Improving technology and increasing control of world markets allowed British traders to develop a commercial chain in which raw cotton fibers were (at first) purchased from [[British Empire|colonial]] [[plantations]], processed into cotton cloth in the mills of [[Lancashire]], and then exported on British ships to captive colonial markets in [[British West Africa|West Africa]], [[British Raj|India]], and China (via Shanghai and Hong Kong).
Production capacity in Britain and the United States was improved by the invention of the [[cotton gin]] by the American [[Eli Whitney]] in 1793. Before the development of cotton gins, the cotton fibers had to be pulled from the seeds tediously by hand. By the late 1700s a number of crude ginning machines had been developed. However, to produce a bale of cotton required over 600 hours of human labor,<ref name=r1>{{Cite journal | last1 = Hughs | first1 = S. E. | last2 =Valco | first2 = T. D. | first3=J. R. | last3 = Williford | year = 2008 | title = 100 Years of Cotton Production, Harvesting, and Ginning Systems | journal = Transactions of the ASABE | volume =51 | issue = 4 | pages = 1187–98 | publisher = | jstor = | doi =10.13031/2013.25234 | url = http://naldc.nal.usda.gov/catalog/23069 | format = | accessdate = }}</ref> making large-scale production uneconomical in the United States, even with the use of humans as slave labor. The gin that Whitney manufactured (the Holmes design) reduced the hours down to just a dozen or so per bale. Although Whitney patented his own design for a cotton gin, he manufactured a prior design from [[Henry Odgen Holmes]], for which Holmes filed a patent in 1796.<ref name=r1/> Improving technology and increasing control of world markets allowed British traders to develop a commercial chain in which raw cotton fibers were (at first) purchased from [[British Empire|colonial]] [[plantations]], processed into cotton cloth in the mills of [[Lancashire]], and then exported on British ships to captive colonial markets in [[British West Africa|West Africa]], [[British Raj|India]], and China (via Shanghai and Hong Kong).
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By the 1840s, India was no longer capable of supplying the vast quantities of cotton fibers needed by mechanized British factories, while shipping bulky, low-price cotton from India to Britain was time-consuming and expensive. This, coupled with the emergence of American cotton as a superior type (due to the longer, stronger fibers of the two domesticated native American species, ''[[Gossypium hirsutum]]'' and ''[[Gossypium barbadense]]''), encouraged British traders to purchase cotton from [[Plantations in the American South|plantations in the United States]] and [[plantations]] in the [[Caribbean]]. By the mid-19th century, "[[King Cotton]]" had become the backbone of the [[antebellum South|southern American]] economy. In the United States, cultivating and harvesting cotton became the leading occupation of [[Slavery in the United States|slaves]].
By the 1840s, India was no longer capable of supplying the vast quantities of cotton fibers needed by mechanized British factories, while shipping bulky, low-price cotton from India to Britain was time-consuming and expensive. This, coupled with the emergence of American cotton as a superior type (due to the longer, stronger fibers of the two domesticated native American species, ''[[Gossypium hirsutum]]'' and ''[[Gossypium barbadense]]''), encouraged British traders to purchase cotton from [[Plantations in the American South|plantations in the United States]] and [[plantations]] in the [[Caribbean]]. By the mid-19th century, "[[King Cotton]]" had become the backbone of the [[antebellum South|southern American]] economy. In the United States, cultivating and harvesting cotton became the leading occupation of [[Slavery in the United States|slaves]].
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During the [[American Civil War]], American cotton exports slumped due to a [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]] [[blockade]] on [[Confederate States of America|Southern]] [[port]]s, and also because of a strategic decision by the [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] government to cut exports, hoping to force Britain to recognize the Confederacy or enter the war. This prompted the main purchasers of cotton, [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|Britain]] and [[France]], to turn to [[Egypt]]ian cotton. British and French traders invested heavily in cotton plantations. The Egyptian government of [[Isma'il Pasha|Viceroy Isma'il]] took out substantial loans from European bankers and stock exchanges. After the American Civil War ended in 1865, British and French traders abandoned [[Egyptian cotton]] and returned to cheap American exports,{{citation needed|reason=I've seen this the other way round with the South suffering because British interests in Egypt persisted and they liked the product better|date=September 2012}} sending Egypt into a deficit spiral that led to the country declaring [[bankruptcy]] in 1876, a key factor behind Egypt's [[History of Egypt under the British|occupation by the British Empire in 1882]].
During the [[American Civil War]], American cotton exports slumped due to a [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]] [[blockade]] on [[Confederate States of America|Southern]] [[port]]s, and also because of a strategic decision by the [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] government to cut exports, hoping to force Britain to recognize the Confederacy or enter the war. This prompted the main purchasers of cotton, [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|Britain]] and [[France]], to turn to [[Egypt]]ian cotton. British and French traders invested heavily in cotton plantations. The Egyptian government of [[Isma'il Pasha|Viceroy Isma'il]] took out substantial loans from European bankers and stock exchanges. After the American Civil War ended in 1865, British and French traders abandoned [[Egyptian cotton]] and returned to cheap American exports,{{citation needed|reason=I've seen this the other way round with the South suffering because British interests in Egypt persisted and they liked the product better|date=September 2012}} sending Egypt into a deficit spiral that led to the country declaring [[bankruptcy]] in 1876, a key factor behind Egypt's [[History of Egypt under the British|occupation by the British Empire in 1882]].
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[[File:Parchman prison convict labor 1911.jpeg|thumb|[[Incarceration|Prisoner]]s farming cotton under the [[Trusty system (prison)|trusty system]] in [[Parchman Farm]], [[Mississippi]], 1911]]
[[File:Parchman prison convict labor 1911.jpeg|thumb|[[Incarceration|Prisoner]]s farming cotton under the [[Trusty system (prison)|trusty system]] in [[Parchman Farm]], [[Mississippi]], 1911]]


During this time, cotton cultivation in the [[British Empire]], especially India, greatly increased to replace the lost production of the American South. Through tariffs and other restrictions, the British government discouraged the production of cotton cloth in India; rather, the raw fiber was sent to England for processing. The Indian [[Gandhi, Mohandas K.|Mahatma Gandhi]] described the process:
During this time, cotton cultivation in the [[British Empire]], especially India, greatly increased to replace the lost production of the American South. Through tariffs and other restrictions, the British government discouraged the production of cotton cloth in India; rather, the raw fiber was sent to England for processing. The Indian [[Gandhi, Mohandas K.|Mahatma Gandhi]] described the process:
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#English people buy Indian cotton in the field, picked by Indian labor at seven cents a day, through an optional monopoly.
#English people buy Indian cotton in the field, picked by Indian labor at seven cents a day, through an optional monopoly.
#This cotton is shipped on British ships, a three-week journey across the Indian Ocean, down the Red Sea, across the Mediterranean, through Gibraltar, across the Bay of Biscay and the Atlantic Ocean to London. One hundred per cent profit on this freight is regarded as small.
#This cotton is shipped on British ships, a three-week journey across the Indian Ocean, down the Red Sea, across the Mediterranean, through Gibraltar, across the Bay of Biscay and the Atlantic Ocean to London. One hundred per cent profit on this freight is regarded as small.
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#The finished product is sent back to India at European shipping rates, once again on British ships. The captains, officers, sailors of these ships, whose wages must be paid, are English. The only Indians who profit are a few lascars who do the dirty work on the boats for a few cents a day.
#The finished product is sent back to India at European shipping rates, once again on British ships. The captains, officers, sailors of these ships, whose wages must be paid, are English. The only Indians who profit are a few lascars who do the dirty work on the boats for a few cents a day.
#The cloth is finally sold back to the kings and landlords of India who got the money to buy this expensive cloth out of the poor peasants of India who worked at seven cents a day.<ref>(Fisher 1932 pp 154–156)</ref>
#The cloth is finally sold back to the kings and landlords of India who got the money to buy this expensive cloth out of the poor peasants of India who worked at seven cents a day.<ref>(Fisher 1932 pp 154–156)</ref>
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In the United States, Southern cotton provided capital for the continuing development of the North. The cotton produced by enslaved African Americans not only helped the South, but also enriched Northern merchants. Much of the Southern cotton was trans-shipped through northern [[ports]].
In the United States, Southern cotton provided capital for the continuing development of the North. The cotton produced by enslaved African Americans not only helped the South, but also enriched Northern merchants. Much of the Southern cotton was trans-shipped through northern [[ports]].
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Cotton remained a key crop in the Southern economy after [[Emancipation Proclamation|emancipation]] and the end of the Civil War in 1865. Across the South, [[sharecropping]] evolved, in which landless black and white farmers worked land owned by others in return for a share of the profits. Some farmers rented the land and bore the production costs themselves. Until mechanical cotton pickers were developed, cotton farmers needed additional labor to hand-pick cotton. Picking cotton was a source of income for families across the South. Rural and small town school systems had split vacations so children could work in the fields during "cotton-picking."
Cotton remained a key crop in the Southern economy after [[Emancipation Proclamation|emancipation]] and the end of the Civil War in 1865. Across the South, [[sharecropping]] evolved, in which landless black and white farmers worked land owned by others in return for a share of the profits. Some farmers rented the land and bore the production costs themselves. Until mechanical cotton pickers were developed, cotton farmers needed additional labor to hand-pick cotton. Picking cotton was a source of income for families across the South. Rural and small town school systems had split vacations so children could work in the fields during "cotton-picking."
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It was not until the 1950s that reliable harvesting machinery was introduced (prior to this, cotton-harvesting machinery had been too clumsy to pick cotton without shredding the fibers). During the first half of the 20th century, employment in the cotton industry fell, as machines began to replace laborers and the South's rural labor force dwindled during the [[World War]]s.
It was not until the 1950s that reliable harvesting machinery was introduced (prior to this, cotton-harvesting machinery had been too clumsy to pick cotton without shredding the fibers). During the first half of the 20th century, employment in the cotton industry fell, as machines began to replace laborers and the South's rural labor force dwindled during the [[World War]]s.



Kiel registrite je 13:56, 4 jan. 2016

Permaŝina rikoltado de kotono.
Permana purigado de kotono antaŭ procezado ĉe ŝpinafabriko en Barato (2010).
Kotonkampo en komenco de la sezono.
Kotonplanto.
Kotonkampo en fino de la sezono.

Kotono estas milda, kuzeneca planta fibro kiu kreskiĝas en semoŝelo aŭ protektujo kiu formiĝas ĉirkaŭ la semojn de kotonaj plantoj de la genro Gossypium en la familio Malvacoj. Tiu fibro estas preskaŭ pura celulozo. En naturaj kondiĉoj, la kotonaj semujoj tendencas pliigi la disigon de la semoj. Kotono estas tiu silkeca lanugo, kiu kovras la semon de kotonujo kaj el kiu oni teksas diversajn ŝtofojn (kardita, kombita kotono).

La planto estas arbusto indiĝena de tropikaj kaj subtropikaj regionoj ĉirkaŭ la mondo, inklude Amerikon, Afrikon kaj Baraton. La plej granda diverseco de specioj de natura kotono troviĝas en Meksiko, sekve de Aŭstralio kaj Afriko.[1] Kotono estis sendepende aldomigita kaj en la Malnova kaj en la Nova Mondoj. Ekologie la intensa agrikulturo de kotono estas la plej problema, ĉar ĝi uzas multe da irigacio kaj de agrotoksaĵoj. De kelkaj jaroj kelkaj provoj pri komercigo de kotonaĵoj ekologie kultivitaj estas faritaj.

La fibra kotono estas plej ofte spinita en fadeno kaj uzata por fari mildan, spireblan tekstilon. La uzado de kotono por fabrikado estas konata el prahistoriaj tempoj; fragmentoj de kotonfabriko datitaj el 5000 a.K. estis elfositaj en Meksiko kaj en la Induso-civilizacio de Antikva Hindio (moderntempa Pakistano kaj kelkaj partoj de Barato). Kvankam kultivata ekde antikveco, estis la invento de la kotonseparilo kio malaltigis la koston de produktado kio kondukis al ties disvastigita uzado, kaj ĝi esta tla plej amplekse uzata natura vestofibrov en la nuntempa vestaĵaro.

Oni nomas brilkotono, al kiu oni donas per kemia traktado silkecan aspekton. Fulmokotono estas celuloza nitrato, preparata per nitrado de kotona celulozo kaj flagrante kiel pulvo. Puriga kotono estas fasko el kotonaj fadenoj por purigi kaj poluri malpurajn objektojn. La lum- kaj varmo-bezono de la planto estas granda.

Lastatempaj ĉirkaŭkalkuloj pri tutmonda kotonproduktado estas de ĉirkaŭ 25 milionoj da tunoj aŭ 110 milionoj da pakoj ĉiujare, kio estus kalkulo por 2.5% de la tutmonda plugebla tero. Ĉinio estas la plej granda produktanto de kotono de la mondo, sed plej el tiu estas uzata hejme. Usono estis la plej granda eksportisto de la mondo dum multaj jaroj.[2] Dum la 19a jarcento la produktado de kotono estis malmultekosta pro la ĝenerala uzado de sklavoj en la laboroj de rikoltado en Sudorienta Usono, kio iel kondukis al la Usona Enlanda Milito. Ankoraŭ dum la unua duono de la 20a jarcento la laborkosto estis sufiĉe eltenebla pro la uzado de malmultekosta laborforto de la posteuloj de la iamaja sklavoj. En Usono kaj aliaj landoj, kotono estas kutime mezurata en pakoj, kio mezuras proksimume 0.48 kubajn metrojn (17 kubajn futojn) kaj pezas 226.8 kilogramojn (500 funtojn).[3]

Tipoj

Pli detalaj informoj troveblas en artikolo Tipoj de kotono.

Estas kvar komerce kultivataj specioj de kotono, ĉiuj aldomigitaj en antikveco:

  • Gossypium hirsutum – kotono de altaj teroj, indiĝena de Centrameriko, Meksiko, Karibio kaj suda Florido (90% el la tutmonda produktado)
  • Gossypium barbadense – konata kiel ekstra-longa kotonkultivaĵo, indiĝena de tropika Sudameriko (8% el la tutmonda produktado)
  • Gossypium arboreum – arba kotono, indiĝena de Barato kaj Pakistano (malpli ol 2% el la tutmonda produktado)
  • Gossypium herbaceum – Levantenia kotono, indiĝena de suda Afriko kaj de la Arabia Duoninsulo (malpli ol 2% el la tutmonda produktado)

La dua amerikaj kotonspecioj responsas por la plej ampleksa majoritato de moderna kotonproduktado, sed la du malnovmondaj specioj estis amplekse uzataj antaŭ la 1900-aj jaroj. Kvankam la kotonaj fibroj aperas nature en koloroj de blanka, bruna, roza kaj verda, timoj el ebla poluado de la genetiko de blanka kotono kondukis al malpermeso en multaj koton-kultivaj lokoj de koloraj kotonvariaĵoj, kiuj restas nun kiel specialaĵa produkto.

Historio

Plej malnova skribita mencio pri kotono estas el Hindio. Kotono kultivatis en Hindio ekde pli ol 3000 jaroj kaj priparolitas en la Rigvedo skribita proksimume en jaro -1500. De antikveco, kaj dum jarcentoj, ĝis la angla koloniado, Hindio estis ĉefa produktanto kaj eĉ eksportisto de kotonaĵoj. En antikvaj tempoj Romianoj importis per alta kosto la hindiajn muslinojn, kiujn ili nomis ventis textiles t. e. teksitaj ventoj. Modernhistorie kotonaj ŝtofoj ornamitaj per koloraj pentraĵoj presitaj el Hindio ekkonatis en Eŭropo nur en la 17-a jarcento kaj tiam nomitis "hindiaĵoj".

Kotonujoj imagitaj kaj desegnitaj de John Mandeville en la 14a jarcento.

Kotono estis uzata en la Malnova Mondo almenaŭ antaŭ 7,000 jaroj (5a jarmilo a.K.). Pruvaro de kotonuzado troviĝis en la loko de Mehrgarh, kie fruaj kotonfadenoj esits konservitaj en kupraj bidoj.[4] Kotonkultivado iĝis pli disvastigata dum la Indusa Civilizo, kiu kovris partojn de la teritorioj kie nun estas la modernaj orienta Pakistano kaj nortdokcidenta Barato.[5] La Indusa kotonindustrio estis bone disvolvigita kaj kelkaj metodoj tiam uzitaj en kotonspinado kaj fabrikado estis plue uzataj ĝis la industriigo de Barato.[6] Inter 2000 kaj 1000 a.K. kotono disvastiĝis tra multo de Hindio.[7] Por ekzemplo, oni trovis ĉe la loko de Hallus en Karnatako datita el ĉirkaŭ 1000 a.K.[8] Kotonfabriko malkovrita en kavo ĉe Tehuacán (Meksiko) estis datita el ĉirkaŭ 5800 a.K., kvanakm estas malfacile scii certe pro la fibra malkomponiĝo.[9] Aliaj fontoj datis la aldomigon de kotono en Meksiko al proksimume 5000 al 3000 a.K.[10]

La antikvaj grekoj kaj la araboj ne estis tre familiaraj kun kotono ĝis la militoj de Aleksandro la Granda, ĉar lia samtempulo Megasteno diris al Seleŭko la 1-a Nikatoro ke "estis arboj el kiuj kreskas lano" en "Indica". Tio povus aludi reference al la "arbokotono", Gossypium arboreum, kiu estas indiĝena de la Hindia subkontinento.

Laŭ la Columbia Encyclopedia:[8]

Citaĵo
 Cotton has been spun, woven, and dyed since prehistoric times. It clothed the people of ancient India, Egypt, and China. Hundreds of years before the Christian era, cotton textiles were woven in India with matchless skill, and their use spread to the Mediterranean countries. 

In Iran (Persia), the history of cotton dates back to the Achaemenid era (5th century BC); however, there are few sources about the planting of cotton in pre-Islamic Iran. The planting of cotton was common in Merv, Ray and Pars of Iran. In Persian poets' poems, especially Ferdowsi's Shahname, there are references to cotton ("panbe" in Persian). Marco Polo (13th century) refers to the major products of Persia, including cotton. John Chardin, a French traveler of the 17th century who visited the Safavid Persia, spoke approvingly of the vast cotton farms of Persia.[11]

During the Han dynasty, cotton was grown by non-Chinese peoples in the southern Chinese province of Yunnan.[12]

In Peru, cultivation of the indigenous cotton species Gossypium barbadense was the backbone of the development of coastal cultures such as the Norte Chico, Moche, and Nazca. Cotton was grown upriver, made into nets, and traded with fishing villages along the coast for large supplies of fish. The Spanish who came to Mexico and Peru in the early 16th century found the people growing cotton and wearing clothing made of it.

During the late medieval period, cotton became known as an imported fiber in northern Europe, without any knowledge of how it was derived, other than that it was a plant. Because Herodotus had written in his Histories, Book III, 106, that in India trees grew in the wild producing wool, it was assumed that the plant was a tree, rather than a shrub. This aspect is retained in the name for cotton in several Germanic languages, such as German Baumwolle, which translates as "tree wool" (Baum means "tree"; Wolle means "wool"). Noting its similarities to wool, people in the region could only imagine that cotton must be produced by plant-borne sheep. John Mandeville, writing in 1350, stated as fact the now-preposterous belief: "There grew there [India] a wonderful tree which bore tiny lambs on the endes of its branches. These branches were so pliable that they bent down to allow the lambs to feed when they are hungrie [sic]." (See Vegetable Lamb of Tartary.) By the end of the 16th century, cotton was cultivated throughout the warmer regions in Asia and the Americas.

The Vegetable Lamb of Tartary

India's cotton-processing sector gradually declined during British expansion in India and the establishment of colonial rule during the late 18th and early 19th centuries. This was largely due to aggressive colonialist mercantile policies of the British East India Company, which made cotton processing and manufacturing workshops in India uncompetitive. Indian markets were increasingly forced to supply only raw cotton and were forced, by British-imposed law, to purchase manufactured textiles from Britain.

Industrial Revolution in Britain

The advent of the Industrial Revolution in Britain provided a great boost to cotton manufacture, as textiles emerged as Britain's leading export. In 1738, Lewis Paul and John Wyatt, of Birmingham, England, patented the roller spinning machine, as well as the flyer-and-bobbin system for drawing cotton to a more even thickness using two sets of rollers that traveled at different speeds. Later, the invention of the James Hargreaves' spinning jenny in 1764, Richard Arkwright's spinning frame in 1769 and Samuel Crompton's spinning mule in 1775 enabled British spinners to produce cotton yarn at much higher rates. From the late 18th century on, the British city of Manchester acquired the nickname "Cottonopolis" due to the cotton industry's omnipresence within the city, and Manchester's role as the heart of the global cotton trade.

Production capacity in Britain and the United States was improved by the invention of the cotton gin by the American Eli Whitney in 1793. Before the development of cotton gins, the cotton fibers had to be pulled from the seeds tediously by hand. By the late 1700s a number of crude ginning machines had been developed. However, to produce a bale of cotton required over 600 hours of human labor,[13] making large-scale production uneconomical in the United States, even with the use of humans as slave labor. The gin that Whitney manufactured (the Holmes design) reduced the hours down to just a dozen or so per bale. Although Whitney patented his own design for a cotton gin, he manufactured a prior design from Henry Odgen Holmes, for which Holmes filed a patent in 1796.[13] Improving technology and increasing control of world markets allowed British traders to develop a commercial chain in which raw cotton fibers were (at first) purchased from colonial plantations, processed into cotton cloth in the mills of Lancashire, and then exported on British ships to captive colonial markets in West Africa, India, and China (via Shanghai and Hong Kong).

By the 1840s, India was no longer capable of supplying the vast quantities of cotton fibers needed by mechanized British factories, while shipping bulky, low-price cotton from India to Britain was time-consuming and expensive. This, coupled with the emergence of American cotton as a superior type (due to the longer, stronger fibers of the two domesticated native American species, Gossypium hirsutum and Gossypium barbadense), encouraged British traders to purchase cotton from plantations in the United States and plantations in the Caribbean. By the mid-19th century, "King Cotton" had become the backbone of the southern American economy. In the United States, cultivating and harvesting cotton became the leading occupation of slaves.

During the American Civil War, American cotton exports slumped due to a Union blockade on Southern ports, and also because of a strategic decision by the Confederate government to cut exports, hoping to force Britain to recognize the Confederacy or enter the war. This prompted the main purchasers of cotton, Britain and France, to turn to Egyptian cotton. British and French traders invested heavily in cotton plantations. The Egyptian government of Viceroy Isma'il took out substantial loans from European bankers and stock exchanges. After the American Civil War ended in 1865, British and French traders abandoned Egyptian cotton and returned to cheap American exports,[mankas fonto](Bonvolu krei Kategorio:Artikoloj kun senfontaj asertoj ekde september 2012!) sending Egypt into a deficit spiral that led to the country declaring bankruptcy in 1876, a key factor behind Egypt's occupation by the British Empire in 1882.

Prisoners farming cotton under the trusty system in Parchman Farm, Mississippi, 1911

During this time, cotton cultivation in the British Empire, especially India, greatly increased to replace the lost production of the American South. Through tariffs and other restrictions, the British government discouraged the production of cotton cloth in India; rather, the raw fiber was sent to England for processing. The Indian Mahatma Gandhi described the process:

  1. English people buy Indian cotton in the field, picked by Indian labor at seven cents a day, through an optional monopoly.
  2. This cotton is shipped on British ships, a three-week journey across the Indian Ocean, down the Red Sea, across the Mediterranean, through Gibraltar, across the Bay of Biscay and the Atlantic Ocean to London. One hundred per cent profit on this freight is regarded as small.
  3. The cotton is turned into cloth in Lancashire. You pay shilling wages instead of Indian pennies to your workers. The English worker not only has the advantage of better wages, but the steel companies of England get the profit of building the factories and machines. Wages; profits; all these are spent in England.
  4. The finished product is sent back to India at European shipping rates, once again on British ships. The captains, officers, sailors of these ships, whose wages must be paid, are English. The only Indians who profit are a few lascars who do the dirty work on the boats for a few cents a day.
  5. The cloth is finally sold back to the kings and landlords of India who got the money to buy this expensive cloth out of the poor peasants of India who worked at seven cents a day.[14]

In the United States, Southern cotton provided capital for the continuing development of the North. The cotton produced by enslaved African Americans not only helped the South, but also enriched Northern merchants. Much of the Southern cotton was trans-shipped through northern ports.

Cotton remained a key crop in the Southern economy after emancipation and the end of the Civil War in 1865. Across the South, sharecropping evolved, in which landless black and white farmers worked land owned by others in return for a share of the profits. Some farmers rented the land and bore the production costs themselves. Until mechanical cotton pickers were developed, cotton farmers needed additional labor to hand-pick cotton. Picking cotton was a source of income for families across the South. Rural and small town school systems had split vacations so children could work in the fields during "cotton-picking."

It was not until the 1950s that reliable harvesting machinery was introduced (prior to this, cotton-harvesting machinery had been too clumsy to pick cotton without shredding the fibers). During the first half of the 20th century, employment in the cotton industry fell, as machines began to replace laborers and the South's rural labor force dwindled during the World Wars.

Cotton remains a major export of the southern United States, and a majority of the world's annual cotton crop is of the long-staple American variety.[15]

Kultivado de kotonujo en Rusio respektive Sovetunio

En Sovetunio oni, cele provizi la tutan landon per kotono, grandskale kultivis la planton per irigacio el la Aral-lago kaj la riveroj en ĝi alfluantaj Amu-Darjo kaj Sir-Darjo, kio rezultis (kaj la akvouzado de la paperindustrio) la sekiĝon, ŝrumpiĝon de la lago, krome Uzbekio suferas pri serioza poluo pro la agrotoksaĵoj.

Kultivado de kotonujo en Hungario

Kvankam la geografia situo de Hungario ne estas konvena por kultivado de kotonujo, oni ofte provis ties kultivadon pro politikaj idealoj. La ideala kultiveja norda limo estas la latitudo de 45-46 gradoj, de kiuj Hungario situas pli norde. De la semado ĝis la rikolto, la kotonujo bezonas 6-8 monatojn (ĉe moder-klimataj specioj), tiel oni plurfoje provis la kultivadon en suda parto de la Granda Hungara Ebenaĵo. Tio signifis gravan riskon.

Laŭ fontoj, la la unuaj eksperimenoj okazis dum regado de Jozefo la 2-a (1780-90), imperiestro de Aŭstrio-Hungario. Tiam la kultivadaj provoj okazis en Bánság (poste en Jugoslavio) kaj oni alportis kamparanojn el Turkio, kiuj konis la kultivadajn metodojn. La eksperimento fiaskis en 1782 kaj 1783 pro la aŭtunaj frostoj. Same okazis en 1785 ĉe Varsad kaj en 1795 denove en Bánság.

La postaj eksperimentoj okazis en kadro de la armeo (pro la kontinenta blokado kaj militoj altiĝis prezo de la kotono) kaj alportis bonajn rezultojn en 1807-08 en regionoj de Temesvár, Versec, Jankovác kaj Pancsova. La ekfolarantan kotonujan kultivadon sufokis la ĉesigita kontinenta blokado (falis la prezo de la kotono). Pluajn provojn faris la hungara inĝeniero István Vedres ĉe Szeged en 1812, 1815 kaj 1818, sed tiujn neniigis la fruaj frostoj. Oni importis en 1846 kotonujajn semerojn el Suda Kalifornio. Oni sukcese eksperimentis ĉe Káposztásmegyer (nun parto de Budapeŝto) per en forcejo antaŭĝermitaj kotonujidoj.

La postaj provoj ĉiam fiaskis pro la nekonvena temperaturo. Danke al la pli konvena vetero en jaroj de la 20-a jarcento (foresto de malfruaj kaj fruaj frostoj), oni sukcese kultivis la planton ĉe Irig, Kaplony (1900), Pincehely (1902), Tárnokhát (1904). Sed en 1904-1905 alvenis denove pli malvarma vetero, kiu fiaskigis la projektojn.

La postaj provoj alportis ĉiam provizorajn sukcesojn nur tiam kiam la vetero estis konvena. La vegeta periodo de la planto estis 6-8 monatoj, dum la senfrosta vegetativa periodo en Hungario estis certa nur de majo ĝis septembro, kiu periodo (5 monatoj) ne sufiĉis por daŭra sukcesa enkonduko de la kultivado. La lastaj plej fifamaj eksperimentoj okazis en 1949-54 dum la plej akra stalinisma epoko. Tiam regis en la komunistaj landoj la ekonomia politiko de la aŭtarĥio kaj la regantoj volis en ĉiu lando produkti ĉion. Kvankam la temperaturo same ebligis provizorajn sukcesojn, la naturon ne sukcesis venki. (Oni kultivis en 1951 sur 50.000 arpentojn kun rikolto de 303 kg je arpento.)

Procezado

Vidu ankaŭ

Notoj

  1. The Biology of Gossypium hirsutum L. and Gossypium barbadense L. (cotton). ogtr.gov.au
  2. "Natural fibres: Cotton", International Year of Natural Fibres
  3. National Cotton Council of America, "U.S. Cotton Bale Dimensions" (alirita la 5an de Oktobro 2013).
  4. (2002) “First Evidence of Cotton at Neolithic Mehrgarh, Pakistan: Analysis of Mineralized Fibres from a Copper Bead”, Journal of Archaeological Science 29 (12), p. 1393–1401. doi:10.1006/jasc.2001.0779. 
  5. Stein, Burton (1998). A History of India. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 0-631-20546-2, p. 47
  6. Wisseman & Williams, p. 127
  7. Fuller, D.Q. (2008). "The spread of textile production and textile crops in India beyond the Harappan zone: an aspect of the emergence of craft specialization and systematic trade", pp. 1–26 in Osada, T., Uesugi, A. (eld.) Linguistics, Archaeology and the Human Past. Indus Project Occasional Paper 3 series. Kyoto: Indus Project, Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. ISBN 978-4-902325-16-4
  8. 8,0 8,1 "cotton" en The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001–07.
  9. Roche, Julian. (1994) The International Cotton Trade. Cambridge, England: Woodhead Publishing Ltd., p. 4–5. ISBN 1-85573-104-5.
  10. (1993) “Plant Remains from the Pinaleño Cotton Cache, Arizona”, Kiva, the Journal of Southwest Anthropology and History 59 (2), p. 147–203. 
  11. Encyclopaedia Islamica Foundation. بنیاد دائره المعارف اسلامی , Retrieved on 28 February 2009.
  12. Maxwell, Robyn J.. (2003) Textiles of Southeast Asia: tradition, trade and transformation. Tuttle Publishing. ISBN 0-7946-0104-9.
  13. 13,0 13,1 (2008) “100 Years of Cotton Production, Harvesting, and Ginning Systems”, Transactions of the ASABE 51 (4), p. 1187–98. doi:10.13031/2013.25234. 
  14. (Fisher 1932 pp 154–156)
  15. Yafa, Stephen. (2004) Cotton: The Biography of a Revolutionary Fiber. Penguin (Non-Classics). ISBN 0-14-303722-6.